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Table 1 List of determinants of the COVID–19 death rates

From: COVID-19 and the efficiency of health systems in Europe

 

Explanatory variable

Definition

Data source

References

INPUT

COVID-19 cases

COVID-19 cases per 1 million population

WHO

[9, 13,14,15,16, 18, 20,21,22,23]

Physicians

Physicians (per 1000 population)

WHO/ Eurostat

[6,7,8,9,10,11, 14,15,16, 18, 20, 22, 24,25,26,27]

Nurses

Nurses and midwives (per 1000 people)

WHO/ Eurostat

[7,8,9,10,11, 15, 18, 20, 24,25,26]

Hospital beds

Hospital beds (per 1000 population)

WHO/ Eurostat

[8,9,10,11, 14, 15, 18, 20,21,22, 24,25,26,27]

Health expenditure

Current health expenditure per capita (current US$)

WHO/ Eurostat

[8, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20,21,22, 24,25,26,27]

OUTPUT

COVID-19 deaths

 

WHO

[9, 14,15,16, 18,19,20,21,22,23]

driving factors for efficiency

Comorbidities

Probability (%) of dying between age 30 and exact age 70 from any of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, or chronic respiratory disease

WHO

[7, 8, 18, 20, 21, 25, 26]

Population over 65

Population ages 65 and above in the total population (%)

World Bank

[8, 15, 18, 20, 21]

Population density

People per sq. km

World Bank

[9, 15, 18, 21, 28, 29]

Education

Percentage of population with intermediate level of education

World Bank

[6, 8, 11, 21, 22, 24, 26]

GDP per capita

GDP per capita (constant 2010 $)

World Bank

[8,9,10,11, 15, 18,19,20,21,22, 24,25,26,27]

Power distance

This dimension expresses how a society handles inequalities among people*

Hofstede insight

[14, 16, 21, 28,29,30]

Government Effectiveness

Perceptions of the quality of public services

World Bank

[7, 9,10,11, 14, 22, 24, 26, 28,29,30]

  1. * People in societies exhibiting a large degree of power distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low power distance, people strive to equalise the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power